Section 2.4.3 : Python Dictionary Operations

Python dictionaries are one of the most important and versatile data structures in Python. They allow you to store data in key-value pairs, which makes it easy to retrieve, update, and manage data efficiently. Dictionaries are widely used in various applications, from simple data storage to more complex operations like counting occurrences, grouping data, and implementing lookup tables.

In this guide, we will thoroughly explore Python dictionaries, covering their creation, manipulation, and methods with detailed explanations and coding examples. We will also discuss dictionary-specific operations, how dictionaries differ from other data structures, and their use cases. Each code example will be explained line by line to ensure a clear understanding of how dictionaries work in Python.

1. Creating Dictionaries

Dictionaries can be created in several ways:

• Using curly braces:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary named my_dict is created with three key-value pairs: 'name', 'age', and 'city'.
• Using the dict() constructor:

my_dict = dict(name='Alice', age=25, city='New York')

Explanation:

• Line 1: The dict() constructor creates a dictionary my_dict with the same key-value pairs as the previous example.
• Creating an empty dictionary:

empty_dict = {}

Explanation:

• Line 1: An empty dictionary empty_dict is created using curly braces.

2. Accessing and Modifying Dictionary Elements

Dictionaries allow you to access and modify their elements using keys:

• Accessing values by key:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}
name = my_dict['name']
print(name)  # Output: Alice

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The value associated with the key 'name' is accessed and stored in the variable name.
• Line 3: Printing name outputs "Alice".
• Modifying values:

my_dict['age'] = 26
print(my_dict)  # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 26, 'city': 'New York'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: The value associated with the key 'age' is updated from 25 to 26.
• Line 2: Printing my_dict shows the updated dictionary.
• Adding new key-value pairs:

my_dict['email'] = 'alice@example.com'
print(my_dict)

Explanation:

• Line 1: A new key-value pair 'email': 'alice@example.com' is added to the dictionary.
• Line 2: Printing my_dict shows the dictionary with the new entry.
• Removing key-value pairs:

del my_dict['city']
print(my_dict)  # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 26, 'email': 'alice@example.com'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: The key-value pair with the key 'city' is removed from the dictionary using the del statement.
• Line 2: Printing my_dict shows the dictionary after the deletion.

3. Dictionary Methods

Dictionaries come with a variety of built-in methods that make it easier to manipulate data.

get()

Purpose: Retrieves the value associated with a given key. If the key is not found, it returns a default value (which is None by default).

Syntax:

value = dictionary.get(key, default_value)

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
age = my_dict.get('age')
print(age)  # Output: 25

# Trying to get a key that doesn't exist
email = my_dict.get('email', 'Not provided')
print(email)  # Output: Not provided

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The get() method retrieves the value associated with the key 'age' and stores it in age.
• Line 3: Printing age outputs 25.
• Line 6: The get() method tries to retrieve the key 'email'. Since it doesn't exist, it returns the default value 'Not provided'.
• Line 7: Printing email outputs 'Not provided'.

keys()

Purpose: Returns a view object that displays a list of all the keys in the dictionary.

Syntax:

keys_view = dictionary.keys()

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
keys = my_dict.keys()
print(keys)  # Output: dict_keys(['name', 'age'])

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The keys() method returns a view object that contains the keys of my_dict.
• Line 3: Printing keys outputs dict_keys(['name', 'age']).

values()

Purpose: Returns a view object that displays a list of all the values in the dictionary.

Syntax:

values_view = dictionary.values()

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
values = my_dict.values()
print(values)  # Output: dict_values(['Alice', 25])

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The values() method returns a view object that contains the values of my_dict.
• Line 3: Printing values outputs dict_values(['Alice', 25]).

items()

Purpose: Returns a view object that displays a list of all the key-value pairs in the dictionary as tuples.

Syntax:

items_view = dictionary.items()

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
items = my_dict.items()
print(items)  # Output: dict_items([('name', 'Alice'), ('age', 25)])

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The items() method returns a view object that contains the key-value pairs of my_dict as tuples.
• Line 3: Printing items outputs dict_items([('name', 'Alice'), ('age', 25)]).

pop()

Purpose: Removes the specified key and returns the corresponding value. If the key is not found, a default value can be returned instead of raising an error.

Syntax:

value = dictionary.pop(key, default_value)

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
age = my_dict.pop('age')
print(age)       # Output: 25
print(my_dict)   # Output: {'name': 'Alice'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The pop() method removes the key 'age' and returns its value, which is stored in age.
• Line 3: Printing age outputs 25.
• Line 4: Printing my_dict shows the dictionary after the key 'age' has been removed.

popitem()

Purpose: Removes and returns the last inserted key-value pair as a tuple. Raises a KeyError if the dictionary is empty.

Syntax:

key_value_pair = dictionary.popitem()

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
last_item = my_dict.popitem()
print(last_item)  # Output: ('age', 25)
print(my_dict)    # Output: {'name': 'Alice'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The popitem() method removes the last inserted key-value pair and returns it as a

tuple, which is stored in last_item.

• Line 3: Printing last_item outputs ('age', 25).
• Line 4: Printing my_dict shows the dictionary after the last inserted item has been removed.

update()

Purpose: Updates the dictionary with elements from another dictionary or an iterable of key-value pairs.

Syntax:

dictionary.update(other_dictionary_or_iterable)

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
my_dict.update({'age': 26, 'city': 'New York'})
print(my_dict)  # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 26, 'city': 'New York'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The update() method updates my_dict with new values for 'age' and a new key 'city'.
• Line 3: Printing my_dict shows the updated dictionary.

clear()

Purpose: Removes all elements from the dictionary, leaving it empty.

Syntax:

dictionary.clear()

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
my_dict.clear()
print(my_dict)  # Output: {}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The clear() method removes all elements from my_dict, leaving it empty.
• Line 3: Printing my_dict outputs an empty dictionary {}.

copy()

Purpose: Returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.

Syntax:

new_dict = dictionary.copy()

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
copied_dict = my_dict.copy()
print(copied_dict)  # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The copy() method creates a shallow copy of my_dict and stores it in copied_dict.
• Line 3: Printing copied_dict outputs {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}.

fromkeys()

Purpose: Creates a new dictionary from a sequence of keys, with all values set to a specified value (or None by default).

Syntax:

new_dict = dict.fromkeys(sequence_of_keys, value)

Example:

keys = ['name', 'age', 'city']
default_dict = dict.fromkeys(keys, 'unknown')
print(default_dict)  # Output: {'name': 'unknown', 'age': 'unknown', 'city': 'unknown'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A list keys is created with three elements.
• Line 2: The fromkeys() method creates a dictionary with keys from the keys list, setting each value to 'unknown'.
• Line 3: Printing default_dict outputs the new dictionary.

setdefault()

Purpose: Returns the value of a specified key. If the key does not exist, it inserts the key with a specified value (or None by default) and returns that value.

Syntax:

value = dictionary.setdefault(key, default_value)

Example:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice'}
age = my_dict.setdefault('age', 25)
print(age)      # Output: 25
print(my_dict)  # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created with one key-value pair.
• Line 2: The setdefault() method checks if the key 'age' exists in my_dict. Since it doesn't, it adds the key with the value 25 and returns 25.
• Line 3: Printing age outputs 25.
• Line 4: Printing my_dict shows the dictionary with the new key-value pair added.

4. Dictionary Comprehensions

Dictionary comprehensions provide a concise way to create dictionaries.

Example: Creating a Dictionary from a List

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
squares = {x: x**2 for x in numbers}
print(squares)  # Output: {1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A list numbers is created with five elements.
• Line 2: A dictionary comprehension is used to create a dictionary squares where each key is a number from numbers and each value is the square of that number.
• Line 3: Printing squares outputs the dictionary with numbers as keys and their squares as values.

Example: Filtering Dictionary Items

original_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4}
filtered_dict = {k: v for k, v in original_dict.items() if v % 2 == 0}
print(filtered_dict)  # Output: {'b': 2, 'd': 4}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary original_dict is created.
• Line 2: A dictionary comprehension is used to create filtered_dict, which only includes items from original_dict where the value is even.
• Line 3: Printing filtered_dict outputs {'b': 2, 'd': 4}.

5. Iterating Over Dictionaries

You can iterate over a dictionary’s keys, values, or key-value pairs.

Example: Iterating Over Keys

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}
for key in my_dict:
    print(key)

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: A for loop is used to iterate over the keys in my_dict.
• Line 3: Each key is printed. The output will be:
  • name
  • age
  • city

Example: Iterating Over Values

for value in my_dict.values():
    print(value)

Explanation:

• Line 1: A for loop is used to iterate over the values in my_dict.
• Line 2: Each value is printed. The output will be:
  • Alice
  • 25
  • New York

Example: Iterating Over Key-Value Pairs

for key, value in my_dict.items():
    print(f"{key}: {value}")

Explanation:

• Line 1: A for loop is used to iterate over the key-value pairs in my_dict using the items() method.
• Line 2: Each key-value pair is printed. The output will be:
  • name: Alice
  • age: 25
  • city: New York

6. Checking for Key Existence

You can check if a key exists in a dictionary using the in operator.

Example: Checking for a Key

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
if 'age' in my_dict:
    print("Key 'age' found")
else:
    print("Key 'age' not found")

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: An if statement checks if the key 'age' exists in my_dict.
• Line 3: If the key exists, a message is printed indicating that the key was found.
• Line 4: If the key does not exist, a message indicating that the key was not found would be printed (though this block is not reached in this example).

7. Nested Dictionaries

Dictionaries can contain other dictionaries as values, allowing for more complex data structures.

Example: Creating a Nested Dictionary

nested_dict = {
    'person1': {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25},
    'person2': {'name': 'Bob', 'age': 30}
}

Explanation:

• Lines 1-3: A nested dictionary nested_dict is created, where each key ('person1' and 'person2') maps to another dictionary containing that person's name and age.

Accessing Nested Dictionary Elements

print(nested_dict['person1']['name'])  # Output: Alice

Explanation:

• Line 1: The value associated with the key 'person1' is another dictionary. The 'name' key of this nested dictionary is accessed to retrieve "Alice", which is then printed.

Modifying Nested Dictionary Elements

nested_dict['person1']['age'] = 26
print(nested_dict)  # Output: {'person1': {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 26}, 'person2': {'name': 'Bob', 'age': 30}}

Explanation:

• Line 1: The age value for 'person1' is updated from 25 to 26.
• Line 2: Printing nested_dict shows the updated nested dictionary.

8. Merging Dictionaries

Dictionaries can be merged using the update() method or the | operator (Python 3.9+).

Example: Merging with update()

dict1 = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
dict2 = {'age': 26, 'city': 'New York'}
dict1.update(dict2)
print(dict1)  # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 26, 'city': 'New York'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary dict1 is created.
• Line 2: A dictionary dict2 is created with an overlapping key 'age' and a new key 'city'.
• Line 3: The update() method merges dict2 into dict1, updating the 'age' and adding the 'city'.
• Line 4: Printing dict1 shows the merged dictionary.

Example: Merging with | Operator

dict3 = dict1 | dict2
print(dict3)  # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 26, 'city': 'New York'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: The | operator is used to merge dict1 and dict2 into a new dictionary dict3.
• Line 2: Printing dict3 shows the merged dictionary.

9. Using Dictionaries as Caches

Dictionaries are often used as caches to store expensive or frequently accessed computations.

Example: Implementing a Simple Cache

cache = {}

def fib(n):
    if n in cache:
        return cache[n]
    if n <= 1:
        return n
    result = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)
    cache[n] = result
    return result

print(fib(10))  # Output: 55
print(cache)    # Output: {2: 1, 3: 2, 4: 3, 5: 5, 6: 8, 7: 13, 8: 21, 9: 34, 10: 55}

Explanation:

• Line 1: An empty dictionary cache is created.
• Line 3: The fib() function is defined to calculate the nth Fibonacci number.
• Line 4: If n is in the cache, the cached value is returned.
• Line 5: The base case of the Fibonacci sequence is handled.
• Line 8: The computed Fibonacci number is stored in the cache.
• Line 10: The Fibonacci number for n=10 is calculated and printed, which is 55.
• Line 11: Printing cache shows the cached Fibonacci numbers, speeding up subsequent calculations.

10. Counting and Grouping with Dictionaries

Dictionaries are ideal for counting occurrences or grouping data.

Example: Counting Occurrences of Elements

words = ['apple', 'banana', 'apple', 'orange', 'banana', 'banana']
word_count = {}
for word in words:
    word_count[word] = word_count.get(word, 0) + 1
print(word_count)  # Output: {'apple': 2, 'banana': 3, 'orange': 1}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A list words is created with repeated elements.
• Line 2: An empty dictionary word_count is created to store the counts.
• Line 3: A for loop iterates over each word in words.
• Line 4: The get() method retrieves the current count of the word (defaulting to 0 if not found) and increments it by 1.
• Line 6: Printing word_count outputs the dictionary with the count of each word.

Example: Grouping Elements by Key

students = [
    {'name': 'Alice', 'grade': 'A'},
    {'name': 'Bob', 'grade': 'B'},
    {'name': 'Charlie', 'grade': 'A'},
    {'name': 'David', 'grade': 'C'}
]
grouped_by_grade = {}
for student in students:
    grade = student['grade']
    if grade not in grouped_by_grade:
        grouped_by_grade[grade] = []
    grouped_by_grade[grade].append(student['name'])
print(grouped_by_grade)  # Output: {'A': ['Alice', 'Charlie'], 'B': ['Bob'], 'C': ['David']}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A list of dictionaries students is created, where each dictionary contains a student's name and grade.
• Line 6: An empty dictionary grouped_by_grade is created to group students by their grades.
• Lines 7-10: A for loop iterates over the students, grouping names by their grade.
• Line 11: Printing grouped_by_grade shows the dictionary where each key is a grade and each value is a list of students with that grade.

11. Sorting Dictionaries

Dictionaries can be sorted by keys, values, or custom criteria.

Example: Sorting by Keys

my_dict = {'b': 3, 'a': 2, 'c': 1}
sorted_by_key = dict(sorted(my_dict.items()))
print(sorted_by_key)  # Output: {'a': 2, 'b': 3, 'c': 1}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The sorted() function sorts the items by key, and the dict() constructor creates a new sorted dictionary sorted_by_key.
• Line 3: Printing sorted_by_key shows the dictionary sorted by keys.

Example: Sorting by Values

sorted_by_value = dict(sorted(my_dict.items(), key=lambda item: item[1]))
print(sorted_by_value)  # Output: {'c': 1, 'a': 2, 'b': 3}

Explanation:

• Line 1: The sorted() function sorts the items by value using a lambda function as the key.
• Line 2: Printing sorted_by_value shows the dictionary sorted by values.

12. Using Dictionaries with Functions

Dictionaries can be passed to functions, returned from functions, and used as function arguments.

Example: Passing a Dictionary to a Function

def print_person_info(person):
    for key, value in person.items():
        print(f"{key}: {value}")

person_info = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}
print_person_info(person_info)

Explanation:

• Line 1: The print_person_info() function is defined to print key-value pairs in a dictionary.
• Line 5: A dictionary person_info is created.
• Line 6: The print_person_info() function is called with person_info as the argument.

Example: Returning a Dictionary from a Function

def create_person(name, age, city):
    return {'name': name, 'age': age, 'city': city}

person = create_person('Alice', 25, 'New York')
print(person)  # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: The create_person() function is defined to create and return a dictionary with the given name, age, and city.
• Line 5: The function is called to create a dictionary person.
• Line 6: Printing person outputs the created dictionary.

Example: Using a Dictionary to Pass Keyword Arguments

def describe_city(city, country, population):
    print(f"{city} is in {country} with a population of {population}.")

city_info = {'city': 'New York', 'country': 'USA', 'population': 8419000}
describe_city(**city_info)

Explanation:

• Line 1: The describe_city() function is defined to print information about a city.
• Line 5: A dictionary city_info is created with keys corresponding to the function's parameters.
• Line 6: The **city_info syntax unpacks the dictionary into keyword arguments, passing them to the function.

13. Advanced Dictionary Techniques

In addition to the basic operations and methods, Python dictionaries can be used in advanced scenarios, such as handling more complex data structures, optimizing performance, and integrating with other Python features.

13.1. Handling Missing Keys with defaultdict

Python's collections module provides a defaultdict class, which is a subclass of dict. It is useful when dealing with missing keys because it allows you to define a default value or a function that generates a default value automatically when accessing a non-existent key.

Example: Using defaultdict for Counting

from collections import defaultdict

word_list = ['apple', 'banana', 'apple', 'orange', 'banana', 'banana']
word_count = defaultdict(int)

for word in word_list:
    word_count[word] += 1

print(word_count)  # Output: defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'apple': 2, 'banana': 3, 'orange': 1})

Explanation:

• Line 1: The defaultdict class is imported from the collections module.
• Line 3: A list word_list is created with repeated words.
• Line 4: A defaultdict named word_count is created, with int as the default factory function. This means that any non-existent key accessed will automatically have a default value of 0.
• Lines 6-7: A for loop iterates over each word in word_list, incrementing the count for each word in word_count.
• Line 9: Printing word_count shows the count of each word as a defaultdict object.

13.2. Nested Dictionaries with defaultdict

When working with nested dictionaries, using a defaultdict can simplify the process of adding elements to the nested levels.

Example: Creating Nested Dictionaries

nested_dict = defaultdict(lambda: defaultdict(int))

nested_dict['A']['x'] += 1
nested_dict['A']['y'] += 2
nested_dict['B']['x'] += 3

print(nested_dict)
# Output: defaultdict(<function <lambda> at 0x...>, {'A': defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'x': 1, 'y': 2}), 'B': defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'x': 3})})

Explanation:

• Line 1: A defaultdict named nested_dict is created, where each key at the first level is associated with another defaultdict with int as the default factory.
• Lines 3-5: Elements are added to the nested dictionaries by incrementing values. The defaultdict ensures that the nested dictionaries are created automatically if they don't exist.
• Line 7: Printing nested_dict shows the nested structure with incremented values.

13.3. Combining Dictionaries Using ChainMap

The ChainMap class from the collections module allows you to combine multiple dictionaries into a single view. This can be particularly useful when you want to treat multiple dictionaries as a single mapping.

Example: Combining Dictionaries with ChainMap

from collections import ChainMap

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
dict2 = {'b': 3, 'c': 4}
combined = ChainMap(dict1, dict2)

print(combined['a'])  # Output: 1
print(combined['b'])  # Output: 2
print(combined['c'])  # Output: 4

Explanation:

• Line 1: The ChainMap class is imported from the collections module.
• Lines 3-4: Two dictionaries dict1 and dict2 are created.
• Line 5: A ChainMap object named combined is created, which combines dict1 and dict2. If a key appears in multiple dictionaries, the value from the first dictionary in the chain is used.
• Lines 7-9: The values associated with keys 'a', 'b', and 'c' are accessed from combined. The value for 'b' comes from dict1 because it appears first in the chain.

13.4. Using Counter for Counting Elements

The Counter class from the collections module is a specialized dictionary designed for counting hashable objects. It's useful for counting occurrences in a dataset.

Example: Counting Elements with Counter

from collections import Counter

word_list = ['apple', 'banana', 'apple', 'orange', 'banana', 'banana']
word_count = Counter(word_list)

print(word_count)  # Output: Counter({'banana': 3, 'apple': 2, 'orange': 1})

Explanation:

• Line 1: The Counter class is imported from the collections module.
• Line 3: A list word_list is created with repeated words.
• Line 4: A Counter object named word_count is created by passing word_list to the Counter constructor.
• Line 6: Printing word_count shows the count of each word, similar to a dictionary but with additional methods for counting.

13.5. Dictionary Views and Dynamic Updates

Dictionary view objects (returned by keys(), values(), and items()) are dynamic and reflect any changes made to the dictionary.

Example: Dynamic Updates in Dictionary Views

my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
keys_view = my_dict.keys()
values_view = my_dict.values()

print(keys_view)  # Output: dict_keys(['a', 'b'])
print(values_view)  # Output: dict_values([1, 2])

my_dict['c'] = 3

print(keys_view)  # Output: dict_keys(['a', 'b', 'c'])
print(values_view)  # Output: dict_values([1, 2, 3])

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: The keys_view object is created using the keys() method.
• Line 3: The values_view object is created using the values() method.
• Lines 5-6: The initial keys and values in the dictionary are printed.
• Line 8: A new key-value pair 'c': 3 is added to my_dict.
• Lines 10-11: The updated keys and values are printed, showing that the view objects reflect the changes dynamically.

13.6. Using Dictionaries for Lookup Tables

Dictionaries are ideal for implementing lookup tables, which map input values to corresponding outputs.

Example: Simple Lookup Table

lookup_table = {
    'a': 1,
    'b': 2,
    'c': 3
}

letter = 'b'
number = lookup_table.get(letter, 'Not found')
print(f"The number for '{letter}' is {number}.")  # Output: The number for 'b' is 2.

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary lookup_table is created with letters as keys and corresponding numbers as values.
• Line 6: The letter 'b' is looked up in lookup_table using the get() method. If the key is not found, it returns 'Not found'.
• Line 7: The result is printed, showing that the number for 'b' is 2.

13.7. Optimizing Performance with OrderedDict

In Python versions before 3.7, dictionaries did not maintain the order of keys. The OrderedDict from the collections module was used to preserve key order. From Python 3.7 onwards, dictionaries maintain insertion order by default, but OrderedDict still provides additional features like reordering elements.

Example: Using OrderedDict

from collections import OrderedDict

ordered_dict = OrderedDict([('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)])
print(ordered_dict)  # Output: OrderedDict([('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)])

ordered_dict.move_to_end('b')
print(ordered_dict)  # Output: OrderedDict([('a', 1), ('c', 3), ('b', 2)])

Explanation:

• Line 1: The OrderedDict class is imported from the collections module.
• Line 3: An OrderedDict named ordered_dict is created with three key-value pairs in a specific order.
• Line 5: The move_to_end() method is used to move the key 'b' to the end of the dictionary.
• Line 6: Printing ordered_dict shows the updated order of the dictionary elements.

13.8. Inverting Dictionaries

Inverting a dictionary means swapping its keys and values. This is often useful when you need to perform a reverse lookup.

Example: Inverting a Dictionary

my

_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
inverted_dict = {v: k for k, v in my_dict.items()}
print(inverted_dict)  # Output: {1: 'a', 2: 'b', 3: 'c'}

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary my_dict is created.
• Line 2: A dictionary comprehension is used to invert my_dict, swapping its keys and values, and storing the result in inverted_dict.
• Line 3: Printing inverted_dict shows the inverted dictionary.

14. Common Use Cases for Dictionaries

Dictionaries are frequently used in various real-world applications due to their flexibility and efficiency in managing key-value data.

14.1. Storing Configuration Settings

Dictionaries are commonly used to store configuration settings for applications because they allow easy access and modification of settings by key.

Example: Application Configuration

config = {
    'host': 'localhost',
    'port': 8080,
    'debug': True
}

print(f"Host: {config['host']}, Port: {config['port']}, Debug: {config['debug']}")

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary config is created to store application configuration settings such as host, port, and debug mode.
• Line 5: The configuration settings are accessed by key and printed.

14.2. Counting Occurrences in Large Datasets

Dictionaries are often used to count occurrences of elements in large datasets, such as words in a document or items in a transaction log.

Example: Counting Word Frequencies

import re
from collections import Counter

text = "apple banana apple orange banana banana"
words = re.findall(r'\w+', text.lower())
word_count = Counter(words)

print(word_count)  # Output: Counter({'banana': 3, 'apple': 2, 'orange': 1})

Explanation:

• Line 1: The re and Counter modules are imported.
• Line 3: A string text is created containing repeated words.
• Line 4: The findall() function from the re module is used to extract all words from the text.
• Line 5: A Counter object named word_count is created to count the frequency of each word.
• Line 7: Printing word_count shows the count of each word.

14.3. Implementing Switch Cases (Emulating Switch Statements)

Python does not have a built-in switch statement like other languages. However, you can emulate this functionality using dictionaries.

Example: Emulating a Switch Statement

def switch_case(value):
    switch = {
        1: "Case 1",
        2: "Case 2",
        3: "Case 3"
    }
    return switch.get(value, "Default Case")

print(switch_case(1))  # Output: Case 1
print(switch_case(4))  # Output: Default Case

Explanation:

• Line 1: The switch_case() function is defined, which emulates a switch statement using a dictionary.
• Line 2: A dictionary switch is created with cases as keys and corresponding output strings as values.
• Line 6: The get() method retrieves the value associated with the given key (value). If the key is not found, it returns "Default Case".
• Line 8: The function is tested with 1, which returns "Case 1".
• Line 9: The function is tested with 4, which returns the default case "Default Case".

14.4. Caching Computed Results

Dictionaries are frequently used to cache the results of expensive computations to avoid redundant processing.

Example: Memoization with a Dictionary

cache = {}

def expensive_computation(n):
    if n in cache:
        return cache[n]
    result = n ** 2  # Simulate an expensive operation
    cache[n] = result
    return result

print(expensive_computation(10))  # Output: 100
print(expensive_computation(10))  # Output: 100 (retrieved from cache)

Explanation:

• Line 1: A dictionary cache is created to store the results of computations.
• Line 3: The expensive_computation() function is defined, which checks if the result for n is in the cache.
• Lines 4-5: If n is found in the cache, the cached result is returned.
• Line 7: If n is not in the cache, the computation is performed (simulated here as n ** 2), and the result is stored in the cache.
• Line 8: The result is returned.
• Lines 10-11: The function is tested with 10. The first call computes and caches the result, while the second call retrieves the result from the cache.

15. Performance Considerations with Dictionaries

When working with large dictionaries or performance-critical applications, it's important to consider the efficiency of dictionary operations.

15.1. Dictionary Performance

Dictionaries in Python are implemented using hash tables, which generally provide O(1) time complexity for lookups, insertions, and deletions. This makes them highly efficient for scenarios where fast access to data is required.

Example: Measuring Performance

import time

large_dict = {i: i**2 for i in range(1000000)}

start_time = time.time()
value = large_dict[999999]
end_time = time.time()

print(f"Lookup time: {end_time - start_time} seconds")

Explanation:

• Line 1: The time module is imported to measure performance.
• Line 3: A large dictionary large_dict is created with one million key-value pairs.
• Line 5: The current time is recorded in start_time.
• Line 6: A lookup operation is performed to access the value associated with the key 999999.
• Line 7: The time after the lookup is recorded in end_time.
• Line 9: The time taken for the lookup operation is printed, typically showing a very small value due to the O(1) time complexity.

15.2. Memory Efficiency

While dictionaries are efficient in terms of time complexity, they may consume more memory than other data structures like lists, especially when storing large numbers of key-value pairs. This is because dictionaries allocate extra space to maintain their hash tables and reduce the likelihood of collisions.

Example: Measuring Memory Usage

import sys

small_list = [i for i in range(1000)]
small_dict = {i: i for i in range(1000)}

print(f"List size: {sys.getsizeof(small_list)} bytes")
print(f"Dictionary size: {sys.getsizeof(small_dict)} bytes")

Explanation:

• Line 1: The sys module is imported to measure memory usage.
• Lines 3-4: A list small_list and a dictionary small_dict are created with 1000 elements.
• Lines 6-7: The memory usage of the list and the dictionary is printed using the getsizeof() function. The dictionary typically uses more memory due to its underlying structure.

15.3. Reducing Memory Usage with __slots__

In scenarios where memory usage is a concern, you can use the __slots__ attribute in custom classes to reduce the memory footprint. While this is not directly related to dictionaries, it’s useful when creating objects stored in dictionaries.

Example: Using __slots__ in a Custom Class

class Person:
    __slots__ = ['name', 'age']

    def __init__(self, name, age):
        self.name = name
        self.age = age

p = Person('Alice', 30)
print(p.name, p.age)  # Output: Alice 30

Explanation:

• Line 1: The Person class is defined with __slots__ to restrict the attributes it can hold.
• Lines 2-3: The __slots__ attribute specifies that Person objects will only have name and age attributes, which reduces memory usage.
• Lines 5-6: The __init__() method initializes the name and age attributes.
• Lines 8-9: An instance of Person is created and its attributes are accessed and printed.

Conclusion

Python dictionaries are a highly flexible and powerful data structure that allows you to efficiently store and manipulate data using key-value pairs. Throughout this guide, we explored the creation, manipulation, and various methods available for working with dictionaries. From simple operations like adding and removing elements to more complex tasks like sorting, merging, and using dictionaries in functions, you now have a comprehensive understanding of how to leverage dictionaries in Python programming.

Dictionaries are essential for many programming tasks, such as data storage, counting, grouping, and implementing caches. Their versatility and performance make them a fundamental tool in a Python developer's toolkit, enabling the efficient handling of structured data in a wide range of applications.